An Interesting Introduction to Psychology - Test Interpretation

A researcher administers one form of a test on one day, and then administers an equivalent form to the same group of people at a later date/time. Alternate forms reliability (or "coefficient of equivalence;" parallel-forms reliability) of reliability is being sought in this example. When correlations are obtained among individual test items, Internal consistency (or "coefficient of internal consistency") reliability is being assessed; the 3 methods for obtaining this reliability include split-half (involves dividing test into 2 parts then correlating responses from the 2 parts), Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (used when test items are dichotomously scored- e.g., "true/false"), and Cronbach's coefficient alpha (used for tests with multiple-scored items- e.g., "never/rarely/sometimes/always").

While the split-half reliability coefficient usually lowers the reliability coefficient artificially, the Spearman-Brown formula can be used to correct for the effects of shortening the measure. Speed tests, as the correlation would be spuriously inflated are measures of internal consistency not good at assessing reliability for.

Instruments that rely on rater judgments would be best to have high Inter-rater (interscorer) reliability, which is increased when scoring categories are mutually exclusive (a particular behavior belongs to a single category) and exhaustive (categories cover all possible responses/behaviors). The Measurement estimates the amount of error to be expected in an individual test score and is used to determine a range, referred to as a/an Standard Error of confidence interval, within which an examinee's true score will likely fall. The formula for the standard error of the measurement is SEmeas = SDx (standard deviation of test scores) / rxx (reliability coefficient).

The probability that a person's true score lies within a range of plus or minus 1 standard error of measurement (SEM) of their obtained score and plus or minus 1.96 (2) SEM, and finally, plus or minus 2.58 (2.5) SEM is 68% of the time, 95% of the time, and 99% of the time. Hypothetically, a test with a reliability coefficient of +1.0 would have a standard error of measurement of 0.0. A test with perfect reliability will have no error.

The standard error of measurement is inversely related to the reliability coefficient (rxx) and positively related to the standard deviation of test scores (SDx). Alternate-forms is the reliability coefficient, when practical, that is best to use. Classical test theory states that an observed score reflects true score variance plus random error variance. Methods of recording behaviors include duration recording (elapsed time that behavior occurs is recorded), frequency recording (number of times behavior occurs is recorded), interval recording (rater notes whether subject engages in behavior during given time period), and continuous recording (all behavior during an observation session is recorded). Simply put, validity refers to the degree a test measures what it purports to measure.

A depression scale that only assesses the affective aspects of depression but fails to account for the behavioral aspects would be lacking Content validity, which refers to the extent to which test items represent all facets of the content area being measured (e.g., EPPP). Content validity assessment requires a degree of agreement between experts in the subject matter, thus it includes an element of subjectivity. In addition, tests should correlate highly with other tests that measure the same content domain. In contrast to content validity, Face validity occurs when a test appears to valid by examinees, administrators, and other untrained observers; it is not technically a type of test validity. A personality test that effectively predicts the future behavior of an examinee has Criterion validity-related validity, which is obtained by correlating scores on a predictor test to some external criterion (e.g., academic achievement, job performance).

The Dehumanization of the American Worker

I would like to preface this by saying that being a part of the workforce and having a successful career have been of utmost importance in my life. I have always worked hard and been conscientious in an effort to succeed. I have enjoyed the challenges and opportunities afforded to me and have basked in the feeling of satisfaction coming home after a challenging day of work knowing that I have made a difference and accomplished my goals and duties.

It is my belief that at the onset of the Great Recession things started to change dramatically in the workplace. Millions of people lost their jobs and their livelihood was threatened. The aim of this blog is to write about the people who have managed to keep their jobs, with myself being a part of this group.

Now there is no doubt that losing a job is a worse predicament than the fate of those who have managed to remain employed. However, a huge price has been paid and continues to be paid by members in the workplace today.

As I see it, today the dominating factor in the workplace is fear. But this is not your typical everyday fear - This is a permeating, deep seated fear that oozes out into the atmosphere and is palpable. This fear has penetrated our thoughts, actions and emotions. This fear is thick and heavy and debilitating. The causes of this fear comes from multiple thoughts:

Fear of losing one's job

Fear of not being able to perform under the burden of the additional workload

The results of fear in people's behavior and moods then becomes irrational and rightly so. I am not condoning irrational behavior however I can understand how this can happen. Companies are cutting back on personnel which means that each person is now expected and required to do more. But it's not just more, its the work of 3 people. In the short term this is doable but unfortunately it is not sustainable in the long run. Today is the long run. For over 2 years employees have been expected to perform at this level. What has this caused? Exhaustion, insecurity, a sense of not being able to do what is being demanded. Because most people take pride in their work and want to do a good job this situation has caused them to feel a constant overwhelm and even mild depression. At a micro level employees blame managers, managers blame subordinates, and human resources has no viable answers or solutions.

Is this the new normal? For a while everyone felt this was just temporary but as the days go by and the economic recovery is slow in coming the grim reality feels like maybe this is not gonna change any time soon.

How do we keep a sense of sanity in what feels like uncontrollable circumstances? We need to look within for answers-one of my favorite quotes is: "All the answers are inside of us"... Perhaps we just need to quiet the chaos of the mind. Easier said than done. I also keep a gratitude journal which brings my thoughts out of their constant swirl into a more peaceful place. I hold the thought that whatever is happening is for my greater good and that this experience is preparing me for the next phase in my life.

So my dear readers, please tell me how you cope in this environment? What are the things you do to try to maintain balance?

Wishing you purpose filled work in the new and unrelenting workplace...

Fatigue, Depression, Overweight and More Might be Due to an Undiagnosed Borderline Low Thyroid

Currently, our country is in the grip of an epidemic of low thyroid conditions. These are due, in large part, to the growing pollution of the air, food, and water, resulting in an autoimmune response against our delicate endocrine glands. The organ most severely affected appears to be the thyroid.

Doctors at Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in New York estimate that 20 million people are currently being treated for a thyroid problem, and the University of Colorado Health Sciences study confirms that another 13 million people would be diagnosed with low thyroid if they only had minimal standard testing performed. A much greater number of people would be diagnosed with the condition if more sophisticated testing were performed.

This constitutes an enormous segment of the population of the United States, and is likely to be at least partially responsible for several other more publicized epidemics we are facing: the diabetes epidemic, especially in children; the high cholesterol epidemic in middle-aged men; the epidemic of severe menopause in midlife women; pandemic depression in all ages of our society; and most certainly the proliferation of obesity in America.

Most people are not aware that their individual problems of fatigue, depression, and overweight might be due to an undiagnosed borderline low thyroid situation. Furthermore, nagging persistent related problems can include sinusitis, constipation, eczema, insomnia, dry skin, hair thinning, brittle nails, intolerance to heat or cold, and a host of female difficulties such as infertility, recurrent miscarriage, endometriosis, ovarian cysts, uterine fibroids, and even bad PMS.

The solution to these problems can be easier than one might suspect, even when a wide variety of conventional and alternative interventions may have so far proven less than fully effective. One needs to first receive an accurate diagnosis, then engage in a specific and personalized thyroid-boosting program. This can be done with conventional medicine, alternative medicine, or a combination of the two. In his thirty years of practice, Dr Richard Shames says "I've seen thousands of patients derive tremendous benefit on every level from properly treating what was erroneously thought by their other doctors to be a normal thyroid situation."

Many of those who have had conventional blood tests, only to be told their symptoms are imaginary, may find a more accurate verdict with a home saliva test. The hormone health group, canaryclub.org, offers these home hormone tests at a discount from two of America's most respected laboratories. We understand they have the lowest price available. The information from these tests often confirms the patients own awareness that there is indeed something wrong. This in turn can lead to effective treatment -- and ultimately a return to wellness.

If you are not feeling well, just not up to par, have unwanted pounds, feel depressed for no apparent reason, are having unexpected and seemingly unwarranted male or female issues - don't wait and don't settle for an unsatisfactory diagnosis - get properly tested - then treated. It is easy, inexpensive and can make the world of difference to your life now!

How is Depression Diagnosed is an Everyday Question

Depression has always been considered as one of the worst health conditions that a person can be subjected to. This is a health problem that affects your mood swings and eventually leaves you feeling hopeless, unwanted, unworthy, sad and emotionally disturbed. All these feelings can come up as result of biological factors in the body that cause a hormonal imbalance to occur. As a result of this, the portion of the brain which deals with the moods and emotions of a person sometimes gets directly affected hence feeling this way. Other causes of depression may include bad relationships, financial problems, or emotional disturbances such as mourning the loss of a loved one.

So how is depression diagnosed? One way to diagnose depression is by answering the various questions that your doctor may ask you as he tries to find out what is bothering you. These questions are usually systematically arranged and the answers that you provide, always help the doctor know exactly what kind of depression you may or may not have. Some of the things that may be asked include questions like; what symptoms do you have?, when did these symptoms start?, how long have you had them?, how severe are these symptoms? among other questions. Once the doctor has all the information needed, he or she can now be in a position to identify the exact problem and be able to prescribe the appropriate treatment for the condition. This diagnostic evaluation usually also includes a complete mental-status examination by the doctors to determine whether the patient's thought pattern, speech or memory has also been affected. However, up to today, no laboratory test, X-ray or blood test is able to precisely diagnose a mental depression.

For people who are old patients of depression or have had depressed people around them, the question "how is depression diagnosed?" to them is usually easily answered. The reason for saying this is that, since they have had personal experience of the symptoms either while under depression themselves or through helping their depressed relatives, they can easily identify the symptoms present in someone else and be able to know what type of depression they are suffering from. These people may look out for depression symptoms like, extreme conditions of sadness, existence of suicidal thoughts, levels of alcohol consumption, episodes of anxiety and depression among other signs. The knowledge of these symptoms can easily enable the person know whether the patient is suffering from major depression, manic depression or anxiety depression depending on the symptoms available.

Since lab tests cannot be used to precisely diagnose depression conditions, they cannot be part of the answer to the question "how is depression diagnosed". However, these lab tests are often used to confirm whether the illness the patient is suffering from is indeed depression or not. The occurrences of neurological disorders like stroke or brain tumors always bring out symptoms that are similar to the ones seen in depression. For this reason, lab tests are usually significant to see whether these disorders are the ones causing the symptoms to occur. If not, then the doctor will know for certain that these are depression symptoms and the right cause of treatment will be able to be administered to the patient.

Relationship Stress #3 - How Relationships Begin to Fail and People Begin to Stress Out

What causes relationships to fail? This is a question that many people ask themselves especially when they have been searching to find a long-term partner, one they can trust and believe in, one who will be their best friend and supporter, one who will share their values and their life, and who will stay with them, as the preacher says - for better or for worse. Every relationship is unique and has its own characteristics, history, and journey so it is very hard to be specific. I'll outline two groups of reasons for relationship failure and I will point out how stressful this can be to both parties when the relationship breaks down.

I tend to avoid the first group of reasons because it involves one in making critical judgments about individual psychopathology. It is true there are many people who have personality disorders and mental health issues in our culture; fairly reliable statistics suggest that up to 22% of adults present with a mental health condition each year. Some of these issues are transient, for example, dysthymia or mild depression, anxiety, or sleep disorders; however, some are persistent and can create dysfunctional relationships, for example, clinical depression, substance abuse, alcoholism, sex addiction, schizophrenia, and psychotic disorder.

I don't want to go too far with this line of analysis but let me give you one example of a severe personality disorder and explain some of the behavioral characteristics of an individual with that disorder - antisocial personality disorder. These people can appear to be charming, engaging, witty, and exciting but there are two different layers of this individual and the underneath layer is grimy and unpleasant. A person with this disorder may have little sense of right or wrong, no sense of morality or ethics, is more motivated by the end than the means, will lie, demean, humiliate, and blame others, is impulsive, and can be dangerous. Unfortunately, they are so good at covering their disorder that when a person 'falls in love' with them, the unsuspecting partner either fails to see the personality flaws or compensates and makes excuses for them. In the long run, like a person with alcohol, sex addiction, or inability to cope with reality, the person with the antisocial personality disorder will manage to destroy either or both the partner and the relationship.

Obviously, the message for anyone in a relationship with an individual with significant mental health issues is to be very clear about their responsibilities. There are too many documented cases, particularly of women, who wish to be Mother Therese who want to 'fix' this person's problems. We only have to look at the number of women who marry men on death row to realize that many women want to be someone's savior. You have to decide if you want to assume this burden and responsibility.

But let's get more practical and talk about relationships in which both parties are fairly mentally healthy but the relationships still fail. Let's begin with one of my four categories of relationship breakdown: soft or unintentional causes. Sometimes we get so carried away and preoccupied with our work that we fail to think about and put energy into our relationship. Sometimes we discover after a short period of time that we have entirely different values and after the honeymoon period is ended we realize we have incompatible worldviews. Sometimes the issue is around a very thorny problem - having children. Some relationships end simply because of incompatible goals about potential parenthood.

My second category of relationship breakdowns is personal style. I'm amused by the research which suggests that women use 22-25,000 words a day and men use 7-10,000 words a day. You often have different verbal styles between people and this can create difficulties. People have different personal disclosure styles as well; some people wear their hearts on their sleeves while others are very private, even secretive. Some people have a personal style which prevents them from being forgiving; they are very tolerant of their partner's lapses and mistakes, while others begrudgingly forgive but rarely forget. Some people are very positive and affirming while others are negative and provide very little positive reinforcement. Some people willingly give affection while others regard affection as a scarce resource and are unwilling to share it. Some people are excessively jealous and this can cause severe relationship difficulties.

My third group is character flaws and sometimes these are more likely to cause a breakdown than anything else. In my last article I talked about the difference between Takers and Givers. Some people are plain lazy and never uphold their end of the responsibilities. In clinical sessions and presentations, I've often said that maturation is a major problem in relationship failure. New research suggests that there are different levels of maturation in female and male brains, the male forebrain not being completely developed until the person is about 26 or 27 years of age. In my long experience, I've noted that some men extend their adolescence and postpone adulthood until they're about 30; as a consequence they are either unable or unwilling to make commitments and make mature judgments. Some men want a mother and a servant in their partner; some women want daddy and a bankroll. Some people are driven by negative feelings; others are mean with money and make this a serious issue in the relationship.

My final group of problems relate to threats and overt physical behavior. Unfortunately, in my experience in preparing police officers to implement the law about policing domestic violence, I have become very aware of how partners can be intimidated by a verbally or physically abusive partner. Constant verbal denigration, constant physical threats or actual physical violence, constant threats over security, for example, taking the house and all the money or breaking up the relationship, are all potent mechanisms to end a relationship.

Yes, I know, this article is a little depressing and I know I should be more positive and give more practical advice but unfortunately what I've described is reality in some relationships. It is helpful for all of us to understand those factors which are threats to healthy, nurturing relationship. Being informed places us in a better position to make sound decisions and to facilitate strategies for improving relationships.

The stresses that emerge from the relationship breakdown factors that I have described include: elevated feelings of insecurity, fear of physical or emotional harm, feelings of failure if we are unable to effectively negotiate a positive relationship, stress from guilt for one reason or another, stress because we are afraid of other people will think we are a failure, and stress from severe disappointment and letdowns. It is wise to be aware that it is human to continue to be hopeful and positive. If your life circumstances and potential are not compromised or threatened, you should do everything you can to build the healthy relationships that you deserve; the obverse applies, if your life opportunities and your personal safety and well-being are compromised - get out of the relationship.

In my next article I'm going to describe how to assess when you have reached the end of relationship.

Common Causes of Teenage Depression

The causes of teenage depression are varied. While genetics play a part in some cases of depression, most teens run into additional obstacles that can cause depression or make an existing depression worse. This occurs most often because teenagers are still learning how to cope with everyday issues and problems, finding out who they are and where they fit in the world.

Teenage depression is widespread, yet each case can be as different as night and day among the teens that experience it. Depression can occur for one teenager because she doesn't have friends and doesn't feel like she fits in. Another teenager can be the most popular kid in school and still experience depression perhaps because the stress of being so popular is weighing her down. In other words, teenage depression can occur with any teenager, regardless of how popular she is. It can occur regardless of how intelligent a child is or how involved in extracurricular activities she is. It can occur because of the clothing she does or doesn't wear, it can occur because she was rejected by a boy. Likewise, a teenage boy is vulnerable to depression for similar reasons.

Some of the most common reasons for teenage depression are reasons that might astonish a parent because the reasons might appear slight to a balanced adult. But what is an ant hill to one person might be a mountain to the next, depending on life experiences that have come before the event and how those experiences have molded the person.

Peer Pressure and Stress: Peer pressure is one of the hardest obstacles to face for teenagers. Everyone wants to fit in and when they don't for whatever reason the rejection can be devastating. Stress can occur in a variety of ways and from directions no one expected. Don't add extra stress to a teenager who is already showing signs of stress. Some forms of stress come from school, such as homework, the need to fit in and the need to find someone to date.

Boyfriend/Girlfriend Issues: Dating issues are high on the list of causes for teenage depression. Rejection by a member of the opposite sex can be a horrific letdown for a teenager.

Disturbing Event: A disturbing event could be a death in the family or of another loved one. Other examples of disturbing events include drive-by shootings, school shootings, bombardment with horrific world events from the media, the death of a pet, being involved in an accident or even witnessing an accident or death.

Feelings Of Failure: This type of issue can be hard on teenagers who are constantly being subjected to school tests and sports events. If they don't do well on a test or perform as well as they, their peers, teachers, coaches and parents believe they should have, it can cause feelings of failure that can manifest into depression.

Divorce Or Separation: When a teenager comes from a broken home, their chances of falling into some type of depression is greater than for teens who hail from happy homes with two parents. At the same time, there have also been cases of children who become depressed because they feel guilty because they don't come from a broken home but their friends do. This type of guilt can also bring on a huge sense of depression.

Learning To Spot The Causes

While it is not easy to spot the causes of teenage depression, it is wise to keep a steady lookout for symptoms that might indicate a problem is brewing. Teenagers tend to keep a lot of information to themselves. They don't often understand what's going on inside their own heads and bodies, and that can be frightening. When they become frightened, they may clam up and not speak to their parents or to their friends.

Because adult issues seem so much more demanding than issues a teenager might face, parents tend to blow off their kids' issues as nothing to be concerned about. But, when a parent takes into consideration the life experiences of a teen and then balances it against the life experiences of an adult, it becomes evident that the issues of a teenager are just as heavy to the teen as the issues of an adult are to the adult. If a parent acknowledges that their child's issues are as great as their own issues, it is much easier to recognize when a child is under too much stress or is bordering on depression.

For instance, if your child's personality changes even slightly you should recognize it as a sign that something is going on. If that something is out of the norm, a watchful parent probably will begin to see a pattern develop. Patterns that point to depression should be addressed immediately with a trained professional in the medical field. While no one can be sure which forms of depression will morph into dangerous medical conditions if not taken care of, and which forms of depression disappear without help, it's best not to second-guess the situation. Don't take chances with your child's wellbeing. If an issue arises with your teenager or with a teenager you know, it's your responsibility to seek help.

Ideas on How To Stop Depression

Depression is a big concern for millions of people. They don't just suffer from the normal depression that you get when something out of the ordinary happens; it is much more than that. Many people stay depressed everyday of their life. Most of the time they don't even know why they feel so bad and many have given up on ever feeling good again. However, it does not have to stay this way. Use the ideas on how to stop depression symptoms that are listed below to help you overcome these symptoms. It will help you to feel good again and enjoy life.

Begin by admitting that you are suffering from a problem with depression. This will make a big difference in the success that you will have eliminating depression from your life. People who don't want to admit they are depressed will just continue to get worse as time goes on. You can't solve a problem that you refuse to accept. After acceptance, you will need to start figuring out what is causing the problem. Depression can be caused by many different reasons so this may take some time, but the sooner you start thinking about it and looking for the problems the sooner you can begin to move on.

Many people become depressed because they have such a low self-esteem. They feel like everything they do is wrong and they have just given up on life. Still others become bored with the same old routine everyday. One way to overcome depression is by finding ways to change these feelings. You can start by spending time with friends. Plan a lunch date once a month or go see a movie. Find ways to make your life more interesting, find a hobby or start playing a sport. Do things that can help to improve your self-confidence, this will help put you on your way to freeing your life from depression.

Always avoid too much alcohol and other types of depressants that can make you feel worse that you already do. Never feel ashamed for being depressed. Even some medications can make your symptoms worse so if you take medications do a little research to find out if what you take could be a problem. Everyone needs help from time to time and there is nothing wrong with asking for it. Family and friends can be a big help. If your depression is serious enough then you may need to take medication such as antidepressants to help you control your symptoms. Depression is a disease and you do need to treat it as such.